14 Acoustic data

14.1 Active acoustic survey

14.1.1 Project information

Lead entity: GMRI

Partner entities: NA

PI name: Graham Sherwood

PI contact information:

Data start year: 2023

Data end year: Present

Spatial scale: Project

14.1.2 Data information

Project link: https://gmri.org/projects/using-telemetry-and-edna-to-quantify-marine-biodiversity/

Data link: Data will be on NERACOOS but not yet available

Metadata link: NA

Data availability: No

Data categories: Acoustic

Data type: spatial

14.1.3 Project description

We are using acoustic telemetry, active acoustics, passive acoustics, eDNA, and traditional sampling to track the movements and diets of important predators, Atlantic cod, and common terns in relation to forage fish.

14.2 State of the Ecosystem {ecodata} R package

14.2.1 Project information

Lead entity: NOAA NEFSC

Partner entities: NA

PI name: Brandon Beltz

PI contact information:

Data start year: 2017

Data end year: 2025

Spatial scale: Northwest Atlantic

14.2.2 Data information

Project link: https://github.com/NOAA-EDAB/ecodata

Data link: NA

Metadata link: NA

Data availability: Yes

Data categories: Acoustic, Chemical oceanography, Physical oceanography, Marine mammals, Plankton, Pelagic fishes, Coastal fishes, Elasmobranchs, Diadromous fish

Data type: “research project, synthesis, or technology development”

14.2.3 Project description

ecodata is an R data package developed by the Ecosystems Dynamics and Assessment Branch of the Northeast Fisheries Science Center for use in State of the Ecosystem (SOE) reporting.

14.3 State of the Ecosystem Catalog

14.3.1 Project information

Lead entity: NOAA NEFSC

Partner entities: NA

PI name: Brandon Beltz

PI contact information:

Data start year: 2017

Data end year: 2025

Spatial scale: Northwest Atlantic

14.3.2 Data information

Project link: https://github.com/NOAA-EDAB/catalog

Data link: NA

Metadata link: NA

Data availability: Yes

Data categories: Acoustic, Chemical oceanography, Physical oceanography, Marine mammals, Plankton, Pelagic fishes, Coastal fishes, Elasmobranchs, Diadromous fish

Data type: “research project, synthesis, or technology development”

14.3.3 Project description

Catalog of indicators used in the State of the Ecosystem reports and other ecosystem assessment products.

14.4 Maine Department of Marine Resources. 2025a. Offshore Wind Research and the Department of Marine Resource’s Role. [accessed 2025 July 16]. https://www.maine.gov/dmr/science/wind-research.

14.4.1 Project information

Lead entity: Maine DMR

Partner entities: Gulf of Maine Research Institute, Biodiversity Research Institute, Maine Department of Inland Fish and Wildlife

PI name: Casey Yanos

PI contact information:

Data start year: 2022

Data end year: 2025

Spatial scale: Project

14.4.2 Data information

Project link: https://www.maine.gov/dmr/science/wind-research

Data link: NA

Metadata link: NA

Data availability: No

Data categories: Acoustic

Data type: spatial

14.4.3 Project description

To estimate abundance and distribution of pelagic fish and large invertebrates in the area prior to construction activities

[1] “This data was sourced from: FishForwrd_2025-04-24”

14.5 ME Research Array - HMS Monitoring

14.5.1 Project information

Lead entity: Maine DMR

Partner entities: University of Maine, GMRI

PI name: Matt Davis

PI contact information:

Data start year: 2022

Data end year: Unknown

Spatial scale: Project

14.5.2 Data information

Project link: https://www.maine.gov/dmr/science/wind-research

Data link: NA

Metadata link: NA

Data availability: No

Data categories: Acoustic, Pelagic fishes, Elasmobranchs

Data type: spatial

14.5.3 Project description

This project aims to study the distribution and habitat use of highly migratory species in relation to proposed offshore wind areas in the Gulf of Maine. The objective is to learn patterns of habitat use and distribution in hopes to provide information regarding offshore biological activity for management purposes.

[1] “This data was sourced from: FishForwrd_2025-04-24”

14.6 Accoustic and Environmental Observation Network - AEON

14.6.1 Project information

Lead entity: University of New Hampshire

Partner entities: JASCO

PI name: Jennifer L. Miksis-Olds

PI contact information:

Data start year: 2021

Data end year: Unknown

Spatial scale: Project

14.6.2 Data information

Project link: https://eos.unh.edu/aeon

Data link: NA

Metadata link: NA

Data availability: Yes

Data categories: Acoustic, Physical oceanography, Plankton

Data type: spatial

14.6.3 Project description

The role of AEON’s passive acoustic monitoring is to provide long-term observations of human and biological activity as well as changes in environmental conditions in support of all four AEON Objectives. The network provides simultaneous, long-term monitoring of soundscapes and multiple acoustically relevant parameters such as marine mammal behavior and prey concentration at key locations where the effects of changes in the Labrador and Gulf Stream currents are projected to impact the Gulf of Maine. At each network site, AEON employs the latest generation of JASCO’s AMAR recorder mounted on an Autonomous Long-Term Observatory (ALTO) lander with ancillary sensors. In addition to the lander recovery and re-deploy, on each deployment effort the team collects CTD profiles to characterize hydrographic conditions at the sites, conducts net sampling to collect biological specimens at each site, and conducts fine-scale (roughly 5n.mi by 5 n.mi) multi-frequency acoustic surveys at each site

[1] “This data was sourced from: RWSC_early-2025”

14.7 Atlantic Marine Assessment Program for Protected Species (AMAPPS) I, II, and III

14.7.1 Project information

Lead entity: NOAA

Partner entities: BOEM, US Navy, USFWS

PI name: Debra Palka

PI contact information:

Data start year: 2010

Data end year: 2050

Spatial scale: Northwest Atlantic

14.7.2 Data information

Project link: https://www.fisheries.noaa.gov/new-england-mid-atlantic/population-assessments/atlantic-marine-assessment-program-protected

Data link: https://apps-nefsc.fisheries.noaa.gov/amappsviewer/

Metadata link: NA

Data availability: Yes

Data categories: Acoustic, Marine mammals, Plankton, Sea turtles, Seabirds

Data type: spatial

14.7.3 Project description

Visual sightings of cetaceans, seabirds, sea turtles and seals, acoustic detections, location/depth, physical water characteristics, distribution and density of fish and plankton. These models rely on seasonal distribution and abundance data our scientists have collected over multiple years using aerial and shipboard surveys. They also include dive pattern information from individually-tagged turtles and detections from passive acoustic recording devices.

[1] “This data was sourced from: RWSC_early-2025”

14.8 Opportunistic Acoustic Telemetry Platforms: Benefits of Collaboration in the Gulf of Maine

14.8.1 Project information

Lead entity: NMFS

Partner entities: University of Maine

PI name: Graham Goulette

PI contact information:

Data start year: 2005

Data end year: 2012

Spatial scale: Gulf of Maine

14.8.2 Data information

Project link: https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/03632415.2014.943740

Data link: NA

Metadata link: NA

Data availability: No

Data categories: Acoustic, Habitat

Data type: spatial

14.8.3 Project description

Receiver Deployments used to expand receiver coverage within Gulf of Maine using existing infrastructure. Receivers were put on oceanographic buoys at approximately 50m depth. They also put receivers on lobster traps and drifters. This increases coverage within the Gulf of Maine to hopefully learn more about fish as they make their migration routes. Additional PIs: James Hawkes- , John Kocik-

[1] “This data was sourced from: RWSC_early-2025”

14.9 Digital acoustic tagging of sei whales

14.9.1 Project information

Lead entity: NOAA Stellwagen Bank National Marine Sanctuary

Partner entities: NA

PI name: Unknown

PI contact information: Unknown

Data start year: 2022

Data end year: 2050

Spatial scale: State

14.9.2 Data information

Project link: https://www.boem.gov/newsroom/press-releases/boem-and-noaa-announce-first-ever-successful-drone-based-tagging-endangered

Data link: NA

Metadata link: NA

Data availability: No

Data categories: Marine mammals, Acoustic

Data type: spatial

14.9.3 Project description

On June 8, 2022, the Bureau of Ocean Energy Management (BOEM) and the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration’s (NOAA) Stellwagen Bank National Marine Sanctuary announced the successful digital acoustic tagging of 14 sei whales in waters offshore Massachusetts. This is the first time researchers have successfully tagged an endangered species in the United States using an uncrewed aerial vehicle (UAV), or drone. The collected data will shed important light on the whales’ acoustic behavior, which researchers will use to inform mitigation strategies – including passive acoustic monitoring – to protect this endangered species from the potential impacts of offshore wind energy activities. Digital acoustic tagging is a component of a larger BOEM study into the Spatial and Acoustic Behavior of Endangered Large Whales to address gaps in information on a variety of endangered large whale species – including sei, North Atlantic right, and fin whales – to better inform offshore wind energy area selection. UAVs enable researchers to target specific animals in a group or conduct multi-group taggings, and the collected data will also aid in conservation efforts. The same project tagged NARW in Mid-Atlantic (2023) and basking sharks in Vineyard Sound (June and Fall 2022).

[1] “This data was sourced from: RWSC_early-2025”

14.10 Environmental Monitors on Lobster Traps and Large Trawlers (eMOLT)

14.10.1 Project information

Lead entity: NOAA NEFSC

Partner entities: Local fishers, Gulf of Maine Lobster Foundation, Nova Scotia Fishermen Scientists Research Society, Commercial Fisheries Research Foundation

PI name: George Maynard

PI contact information:

Data start year: 2001

Data end year: Present

Spatial scale: Northwest Atlantic

14.10.2 Data information

Project link: https://www.emolt.org/

Data link: https://erddap.emolt.net/erddap/tabledap/eMOLT_RT_QAQC.html

Metadata link: NA

Data availability: Yes

Data categories: Acoustic, Chemical oceanography, Physical oceanography

Data type: spatial

14.10.3 Project description

Beginning in 2001, hundreds of commercial fishing vessels on the Northeast Shelf have had oceanographic sensors installed on their fixed and mobile gear. Some have experimented with pressure sensors, acoustic listening devices, cameras, satellite-tracked drifters, current meters, and salinity monitors but the primary focus has been monitoring temperature. While some gear are fitted with internally-recording devices that have returned more than two decades of hourly data from fixed locations, most of the vessels are now fitted with a satellite transmitter and, most recently, with cell phones so that tens of thousands of hauls have been reported in realtime since 2015. The original focus was on bottom temperature but, beginning in 2020, most vessels are now equipped with water column profilers to document the vertical stratification of temperature and several are collecting records of dissolved oxygen.

[1] “This data was sourced from: RWSC_early-2025”

14.11 Maine Department of Marine Resources passive acoustic monitoring project

14.11.1 Project information

Lead entity: Maine Department of Marine Resources

Partner entities: University of Maine, Maine Community Foundation, NOAA NEFSC

PI name: Anita Murray

PI contact information:

Data start year: 2021

Data end year: 2027

Spatial scale: Gulf of Maine

14.11.2 Data information

Project link: https://www.maine.gov/dmr/science/right-whale/monitoring

Data link: https://apps-nefsc.fisheries.noaa.gov/pacm/#/narw

Metadata link: https://matos.asascience.com/project/detail/188

Data availability: No

Data categories: Acoustic, Marine mammals

Data type: spatial

14.11.3 Project description

This passive acoustic monitoring project constitutes 10 subsurface moorings that include acoustic sound traps (ST600STDs) coupled with Innovasea VR2AR acoustic releases for the primary purpose of detecting North Atlantic right whales and other baleen whales within the Gulf of Maine. This array will likely expand its scope in the future, adding 7 additional moorings in 2023, as Maine seeks to better understand a) the distribution of baleen whales within the Gulf of Maine and b) baseline ambient noise levels prior to offshore wind development. The spatial coverage of this array may also serve as a bountiful platform of opportunity for tagging studies not only within the Department, but the region. Maine is happy to engage in these data-sharing efforts for the benefit of knowledge beyond its immediate purposes. Tagged protected fish will be detected on the receivers.

[1] “This data was sourced from: RWSC_early-2025”

14.13 NOAA Fisheries Northeast Fisheries Science Center passive acoustic monitoring in the Gulf of Maine

14.13.1 Project information

Lead entity: NOAA NEFSC

Partner entities: University of Maine, Maine DMR

PI name: Sofie Van Parijs

PI contact information:

Data start year: 2020

Data end year: 2026

Spatial scale: Gulf of Maine

14.13.2 Data information

Project link: https://www.fisheries.noaa.gov/new-england-mid-atlantic/endangered-species-conservation/passive-acoustic-research-atlantic-ocean

Data link: NA

Metadata link: NA

Data availability: No

Data categories: Acoustic, Marine mammals, Plankton, Groundfish

Data type: spatial

14.13.3 Project description

Researchers at NOAA Fisheries Northeast Fisheries Science Center monitor the waters of the Gulf of Maine using passive acoustic recorders that collect ambient sound data. These data are used to characterize soundscapes and detect the presence of species of interest, such as marine mammals, fish, and invertebrates. The current mooring designs include hydrophones to record ambient sound and VR2AR acoustic releases. No animals are currently being tagged within these monitoring efforts. Thus, all detections are of opportunity and hopefully will contribute valuable information to other researchers. Tagged protected fish will be detected on the receivers.

[1] “This data was sourced from: RWSC_early-2025”

14.14 Sanctuary Soundscape Monitoring Project (SanctSound): NOAA Fisheries Northeast Fisheries Science Center Soundscape and Acoustic Telemetry Monitoring in Stellwagen Bank National Marine Sanctuary

14.14.1 Project information

Lead entity: NOAA NEFSC

Partner entities: NOAA Office of National Marine Sanctuaries, US Navy

PI name: Timothy J. Rowell

PI contact information:

Data start year: 2018

Data end year: 2050

Spatial scale: Gulf of Maine

14.14.2 Data information

Project link: https://sanctuaries.noaa.gov/science/monitoring/sound/

Data link: NA

Metadata link: https://sanctuaries.noaa.gov/science/monitoring/sound/sanctsound-storymap.html

Data availability: No

Data categories: Acoustic, Marine mammals

Data type: spatial

14.14.3 Project description

Together with the Office of National Marine Sanctuaries, researchers at NOAA Fisheries Northeast Fisheries Science Center are collecting acoustic data to examine soundscape in U.S. National Marine Sanctuaries across the country. As part of this endeavor, researchers maintain two to three recording sites year-round within Stellwagen Bank NMS. Each site has a mooring line equipped with hydrophone recorders and VR2AR acoustic releases. No animals are currently being tagged as part of this work. Thus, all detections are of opportunity and hopefully will contribute valuable information to other researchers.

[1] “This data was sourced from: RWSC_early-2025”

14.15 NorthEast Area Monitoring and Assessment Program (NEAMAP)

14.15.1 Project information

Lead entity: Atlantic States Marine Fisheries Commission

Partner entities: Maine Department of Marine Resources, Massachusetts Division of Marine Fisheries, Virginia Institute of Marine Science, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, NOAA NEFSC, NE Fishery Management Council, Mid-Atlantic Fishery Management Council, FWS, Potomac River Fisheries Commission

PI name: Sarah Murray

PI contact information:

Data start year: 2006

Data end year: Present

Spatial scale: Northwest Atlantic

14.15.2 Data information

Project link: http://neamap.net

Data link: NA

Metadata link: NA

Data availability: No

Data categories: Physical oceanography, Groundfish, Coastal fishes, Diadromous fish, Acoustic

Data type: spatial

14.15.3 Project description

NEAMAP (Northeast Area Monitoring and Assessment Program) is a collaborative state-federal initiative dedicated to the collection, analysis, and dissemination of fishery-independent data along the Atlantic coast, from the Gulf of Maine to Cape Hatteras, NC. Our data collection efforts support stock assessments and fisheries management while enhancing our understanding of the marine ecosystem. The fishery-independent data we gather are invaluable resources for government agencies, recreational and commercial fisheries, researchers, and various stakeholders. Our program aims to coordinate existing fishery-independent surveys to optimize activities, promote comprehensive and consistent data collection, and maximize the utility of survey findings.

[1] “This data was sourced from: RWSC_early-2025”

14.16 Ocean Tracking Network Halifax Line

14.16.1 Project information

Lead entity: Ocean Tracking Network

Partner entities: Fisheries and Oceans Canada

PI name: Dave Hebert

PI contact information:

Data start year: 2008

Data end year: Present

Spatial scale: Northwest Atlantic

14.16.2 Data information

Project link: https://members.oceantrack.org/project?ccode=HFX

Data link: NA

Metadata link: NA

Data availability: Yes

Data categories: Acoustic, Physical oceanography

Data type: spatial

14.16.3 Project description

The Atlantic Ocean off of Halifax, Nova Scotia is home to a great variety of marine species, both resident and migratory. Since 2008, the Ocean Tracking Network, with the support of DFO, has maintained an acoustic receiver curtain to track movements of a variety of acoustically tagged species moving laterally along the East Coast continental shelf, as well as year round and seasonal residents in the Halifax Region. The OTN Halifax line spans the entire width of the continental shelf off Halifax and consists of hydrophone moorings at 800 m spacing over a total length of almost 205 km. This makes it the largest single fixed oceanographic monitoring system in the world. The line meanders to avoid areas of intense trawling activity such as the Emerald Basin. In addition to acoustic receivers, several of these moorings contain benthic pods: instrumented packages that provide time series of bottom pressure (sea level height), temperature and salinity. This massive undertaking took four years to fully deploy. Data stored on receivers or benthic pods are retrieved via autonomous vehicles (gliders), as well as manned vessels. Marine species tagged in over 20 OTN projects have been detected on this line to date. This array has bennefited many telemetry investigations (salmon, sturgeon, etc) within the U.S. and Canada. Co-PI: Fred Whoriskey -

[1] “This data was sourced from: RWSC_early-2025”

14.17 Passive Acoustic Cetacean Map

14.17.1 Project information

Lead entity: NOAA NEFSC

Partner entities: NA

PI name: Sofie Van Parijs

PI contact information:

Data start year: 2020

Data end year: 2050

Spatial scale: Northwest Atlantic

14.17.2 Data information

Project link: https://apps-nefsc.fisheries.noaa.gov/pacm/

Data link: NA

Metadata link: NA

Data availability: Yes

Data categories: Acoustic, Marine mammals

Data type: spatial

14.17.3 Project description

The Passive Acoustic Cetacean Map (PACM) shows when and where specific whale, dolphin, and other cetacean species were acoustically detected in the North Atlantic Ocean based on Passive Acoustic Monitoring (PAM). The dataset was compiled by the NOAA NEFSC Passive Acoustic Research Program using detection data collected by many collaborators. Information on data ownership can be found in the metadata of each station or platform. Species that are currently represented include the North Atlantic right whale, fin whale, humpback whale, sei whale, blue whale, sperm whale, beaked whale species, and Kogia species (dwarf/pygmy sperm whales). The specific call types used for each species along with other metadata related to the recording and detection analysis can be found by hovering over or clicking on each platform Acoustic detections were recorded using stationary (bottom-mounted moorings, surface buoys) and mobile (autonomous gliders and towed arrays) platforms. These acoustic detections only represent times when animals are calling; they do not capture time periods when animals are present but silent. Detections are from archival acoustic recorders and do not show recorders currently in the water (this is not a real-time tool). Differences in recorder detection ranges for each species are not accounted for; they can vary based on differences in instrumentation (i.e., recording hardware), environmental conditions (i.e., weather, bottom type, ambient sound levels), and anthropogenic sound levels.

[1] “This data was sourced from: RWSC_early-2025”

14.18 Robots4Whales

14.18.1 Project information

Lead entity: WHOI

Partner entities: WHOI’s Mooring Operations and Engineering Group NOAA Northeast Fisheries Science Center Ocean Tracking Network at Dalhousie University University of New Brunswick Rutgers University Stony Brook University Wildlife Conservation Society Skidaway Institution of Oceanography University of South Carolina University of Maine Benioff Ocean Science Laboratory University of Maryland Center for Environmental Science Naval Facilities Engineering Command (NAVFAC) Atlantic Norwegian University of Science and Technology Universidad de Concepción

PI name: Mark Baumgartner

PI contact information:

Data start year: 2012

Data end year: Present

Spatial scale: Northwest Atlantic

14.18.2 Data information

Project link: http://robots4whales.whoi.edu/

Data link: NA

Metadata link: NA

Data availability: Yes

Data categories: Acoustic, Marine mammals

Data type: spatial

14.18.3 Project description

Welcome to Robots4Whales, the website for the autonomous platform operations of marine ecologist Mark Baumgartner at the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution and his phenomenal collaborators. We monitor the presence of marine mammals from ocean-going robots by listening for the sounds the animals make. The robots automatically detect those sounds, identify the species based on characteristics of the sounds, and report which species have been heard to researchers on shore via satellite in near real time. Human analysts verify this information, after which it is automatically shared with scientists, industry, and state and federal managers to inform and enable research and conservation measures, such as NOAA’s Slow Zones for Right Whales, Transport Canada’s vessel strike mitigation program, Department of Fisheries and Oceans Canada’s fishing gear entanglement mitigation program and the Benioff Ocean Science Laboratory’s Whale Safe program. Visit any of the projects below to find out where the robots are and what they’ve been hearing lately.

14.19 Tracking seasonal movements of anadromous fishes in the Saco River system using acoustic telemetry

14.19.1 Project information

Lead entity: University of Maine

Partner entities: Maine DMR, USGS

PI name: John Mohan

PI contact information:

Data start year: 2022

Data end year: Present

Spatial scale: State

14.19.2 Data information

Project link: https://matos.asascience.com/project/detail/237

Data link: NA

Metadata link: NA

Data availability: No

Data categories: Acoustic, Diadromous fish

Data type: spatial

14.19.3 Project description

The Saco River Estuary support several species of migratory fishes. The goal of this study is to determine the seasonal movement and habitat use of Striped Bass and Atlantic Sturgeon in the Saco River. Using acoustic telemetry, this study established a network of passive receivers to better understand Striped Bass seasonal movements in the Saco River, and throughout their coastal migratory range. The Gulf of Maine Distinct Population Segment of Atlantic Sturgeon are listed as threatened. Atlantic Sturgeon utilize the Saco River as a feeding ground, but move among nearby rivers. Characterizing seasonal presence and connectivity of Atlantic Sturgeon among Maine Rivers, is essential to better understand dynamics of threatened populations. Fish are internally tagged with V13 or V16 acoustic tag. Receivers are located throughout the Saco River and Saco Bay and deployed from June to November.

[1] “This data was sourced from: RWSC_early-2025”

14.20 MassDMF Passive Acoustic Monitoring Program - real-time and archival

14.20.1 Project information

Lead entity: Massachusetts Division of Marine Fisheries

Partner entities: WHOI

PI name: Erin Burke

PI contact information:

Data start year: 2025

Data end year: 2050

Spatial scale: Project

14.20.2 Data information

Project link: https://www.mass.gov/info-details/conservation-of-protected-marine-species

Data link: https://robots4whales.whoi.edu/

Metadata link: NA

Data availability: Yes

Data categories: Acoustic, Marine mammals

Data type: spatial

14.20.3 Project description

This project includes 2 real-time passive acoustic monitoring units (deployed in late February 2025) and 17 archival passive acoustic monitoring units (deployed in April 2025) in Massachusetts state waters. In 2025 MassDMF initiated a passive acoustic monitoring program to enhance our understanding of the seasonal presence of North Atlantic right whales in Massachusetts coastal waters. The monitoring network includes both near real-time and archival detection methods to collect data on right whale vocalizations. DMF is partnering with Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution to operate two near real-time passive acoustic buoys (one in Cape Cod Bay and another off Gloucester) which relay large whale call detections via satellite every two hours. The real-time (DMON) buoys were deployed southeast of Cape Ann, and in Cape Cod Bay, Massachusetts on February 23, 2025. Detections can be found at the publicly accessible website Robots4Whales. In addition, DMF is deploying bottom-mounted acoustic monitors at 17 different sites across Massachusetts state waters and adjacent federal waters. These monitors are archival, collecting data for five months before being called to the surface for servicing, data downloading, and redeployment. The data collected through this acoustic monitoring network will enhance our understanding of the spatial and temporal presence of North Atlantic right whales, aid in the development of occupancy estimates, and increase the efficiency of dynamic management of fixed gear closures meant to protect right whales from entanglement. Real-time detections will improve our confidence in the decision to extend or open the closure of the Massachusetts Restricted Area due to right whale presence or absence. Archival data will be analyzed for seasonal and temporal patterns in detections, aiding in the estimates of right whale density and occupancy in New England waters, which can be used to evaluate the effectiveness of conservation measures and aid in the development of future measures to reduce risk of entanglement and ship strike.

[1] “This data was sourced from: RWSC_2025-04-24”